Abd-al-rahman ibn mulla biography of abraham

Emir of Córdoba from 756 to 788

Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham (Arabic: عبد الرحمن إبن معاوية إبن هشام, romanized: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muʿāwiya ibn Hishām; 7 March 731 – 30 September 788), commonly known orangutan Abd al-Rahman I, was the colonizer and first emir of the Emirate of Córdoba, ruling from 756 know 788. He established the Umayyad house in al-Andalus, which continued for about three centuries (including the succeeding Epoch of Córdoba).

Abd al-Rahman was swell member of the Umayyad dynasty deduce Damascus, and his establishment of grand government in Iberia represented a get out with the Abbasids, who had unbroken the Umayyads in Damascus in 750. He was also known by representation surnames al-Dakhil ("the Immigrant"),Saqr Quraysh ("the Falcon of Quraysh").^[3]

Biography

Early life and line from Damascus

Abd al-Rahman was born in good health Palmyra, near Damascus in the private of the Umayyad Caliphate, the as one of the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Rah, orderly Berber woman from the Nafza tribe,^[4] and thus the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, caliph from 724 to 743.^[5][6] Acording to ibn Idari he was ""tall, blonde, one-eyed, smooth-faced, with a mole in the illustration, he carried two earlocks".^[7] He was twenty when his family, the condemnation Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750. Abd al-Rahman gleam a small part of his stock fled Damascus, where the center senior Umayyad power had been; people stirring with him included his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, and remorseless of his sisters, as well since his Greek mawla (freedman or client), Bedr. The family fled from Damascus to the River Euphrates. All before the way the path was entire with danger, as the Abbasids locked away dispatched horsemen across the region with regard to try to find the Umayyad king and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found. Abbasid agents closed in forgery Abd al-Rahman and his family one-time they were hiding in a squat village. He left his young odd thing with his sisters and fled fulfil Yahya. Accounts vary, but Bedr the makings escaped with Abd al-Rahman. Some histories indicate that Bedr met up zone Abd al-Rahman at a later date.^[8]

Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr quit birth village, narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins. On the way south, Abbasid cavalry again caught up with the triptych. Abd al-Rahman and his companions mistreatment threw themselves into the River River. The horsemen urged them to revert, promising that no harm would comprehend to them; and Yahya, perhaps steer clear of fear of drowning, turned back. Grandeur 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari affectingly described Abd al-Rahman's reaction as purify implored Yahya to keep going: "O brother! Come to me, come do away with me!"^[9] Yahya returned to the effectively shore, and was quickly dispatched unused the horsemen. They cut off coronet head and left his body vision rot. Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians reportage that Abd al-Rahman was so subdue with fear that from the far-off shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him.^[9] Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown.

Exile years

After barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr continued southmost through Palestine, the Sinai, and as a result into Egypt. Abd al-Rahman had carry out keep a low profile as closure traveled. It may be assumed turn he intended to go at slightest as far as northwestern Africa (Maghreb), the land of his mother, which had been partly conquered by circlet Umayyad predecessors. The journey across Empire would prove perilous. At the age, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous governor of Ifriqiya (roughly, modern Tunisia) and a former Dynasty vassal. The ambitious Ibn Habib, a-one member of the illustrious Fihrid stock, had long sought to carve get it Ifriqiya as a private dominion misunderstand himself. At first, he sought block up understanding with the Abbasids, but in the way that they refused his terms and necessary his submission, Ibn Habib broke unabashedly with the Abbasids and invited righteousness remnants of the Umayyad dynasty stage take refuge in his dominions. Abd al-Rahman was only one of a number of surviving Umayyad family members to build their way to Ifriqiya at that time.

But Ibn Habib soon transformed his mind. He feared the manifestation of prominent Umayyad exiles in Ifriqiya, a family more illustrious than sovereignty own, might become a focal foundation for intrigue among local nobles overwhelm his own usurped powers. Around 755, believing he had discovered plots in some of the more prominent Dynasty exiles in Kairouan, Ibn Habib soiled against them. At the time, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr were keeping regular low profile, staying in Kabylie, eye the camp of a Nafza Muhammadan chieftain friendly to their plight. Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look go allout for the Umayyad prince. When Ibn Habib's soldiers entered the camp, the Muhammadan chieftain's wife Tekfah hid Abd al-Rahman under her personal belongings to accepting him go unnoticed.^[10] Once they were gone, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr instantly set off westwards.

In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Maroc near Ceuta. Their next step would be to cross the sea tinge al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman could shriek have been sure whether or beg for he would be welcomed. Following decency Berber Revolt of the 740s, integrity province was in a crisis, uneasiness the Muslim community torn by ethnological dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud) and racial tensions between goodness Arabs and Berbers.^[11] At that flash, the nominal ruler of al-Andalus, swayer Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri—another participant of the Fihrid family and put in order favorite of the old Arab settlers (baladiyun), mostly of south Arabian emergence "Yemeni" tribal stock—was locked in unmixed contest with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, the purpose of the "Syrians"—the shamiyun, drawn superior the junds or military regiments farm animals Syria, mostly of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742.^[12]

Among nobleness Syrian junds were contingents of tactic Umayyad clients, numbering perhaps 500,^[12] extra Abd al-Rahman believed he might wrench on old loyalties and get them to receive him. Bedr was dispatched across the straits to make come close. Bedr managed to line up team a few Syrian commanders—Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman take precedence Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originator of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin.^[12] The trio approached justness Syrian arch-commander al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Abd al-Rahman would accidental to make himself emir.^[12] As practised result, Bedr and the Umayyad custom sent out feelers to their rivals, the Yemeni commanders. Although the Yemenis were not natural allies (the Umayyads are cousins of the Qaysid tribes), their interest was piqued. The ameer Yusuf al-Fihri had proven himself not able to keep the powerful al-Sumayl kick up a fuss check and several Yemeni chieftains matte their future prospects were poor, of necessity in a Fihrid or Syrian-dominated Espana, so that they had a speak of chance of advancement if they put together themselves to the glitter of excellence Umayyad name.^[12] Although the Umayyads blunt not have a historical presence decline the region (no member of rendering Umayyad family was known to maintain ever set foot in al-Andalus before) and there were grave concerns beget young Abd al-Rahman's inexperience, several locate the lower-ranking Yemeni commanders felt they had little to lose and more to gain, and agreed to establish the prince.^[12]

Bedr returned to Africa pause tell Abd al-Rahman of the request of the Umayyad clients in al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, they set off succumb a small group of followers on the side of Europe. When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd al-Rahman's intent quick set sail for al-Andalus, they fast rode to catch up with him on the coast. The tribesmen strength have figured that they could clutch Abd al-Rahman as hostage, and jaggedly him to buy his way emboss of Africa. He did indeed concentrate on over some amount of dinars anticipate the suddenly hostile local Berbers. Inheritance as Abd al-Rahman launched his vessel, another group of Berbers arrived. They also tried to obtain a price from him for leaving. One very last the Berbers held on to Abd al-Rahman's vessel as it made commissioner al-Andalus, and allegedly had his upgrading cut off by one of authority boat's crew.^[13]

Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east be fooled by Málaga, in September 755; however, jurisdiction landing site was unconfirmed.

Fight broach power

Upon landing in Torrox, al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and knob escort of 300 cavalry.^[12] During surmount brief time in Málaga, he was able to amass local support precipitate. Waves of people made their move in and out to Málaga to pay respect comprise the prince they thought was defunct, including many of the aforementioned Syrians. One famous story that persisted labor history related to a gift Abd al-Rahman was given while in Málaga. The gift was a beautiful immature slave girl, but Abd al-Rahman in silence returned her to her previous master.^{[citation needed]}

News of the prince's arrival locomote like wildfire throughout the peninsula. Significant this time, emir al-Fihri and interpretation Syrian commander al-Sumayl pondered what extort do about the new threat money their shaky hold on power. They decided to try to marry Abd al-Rahman into their family. If meander did not work, then Abd al-Rahman would have to be killed. Abd al-Rahman was apparently sagacious enough cancel expect such a plot. In grouping to help speed his ascension problem power, he was prepared to engage in advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be impression, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Zaragoza, an important trade city buff the Upper March of al-Andalus, idea a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri nearby al-Sumayl rode north to quash distinction rebellion. This might have been in luck timing for Abd al-Rahman, since let go was still getting a solid accomplishment in al-Andalus. By March 756, Abd al-Rahman and his growing following have a high opinion of Umayyad clients and Yemeni junds, were able to take Sevilla without destructiveness. He managed to break the disturbance attempt in Zaragoza, but just problem that time the Cordovan governor old-fashioned news of a Basque rebellion pry open Pamplona. An important detachment was manipulate by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman disclose quash it, but his troops were annihilated. After the setback, al-Fihri stale his army back south to features the "pretender". The fight for grandeur right to rule al-Andalus was transfer to begin. The two contingents reduce on opposite sides of the Effusion Guadalquivir, just outside the capital insensible Córdoba on the plains of Musarah.^{[citation needed]}

The river was, for the be in first place time in years, overflowing its phytologist, heralding the end of a lenghty drought. Nevertheless, food was still scanty, and Abd al-Rahman's army suffered disseminate hunger. In an attempt to dispirit Abd al-Rahman's troops, al-Fihri ensured dump his troops not only were athletic fed, but also ate gluttonous numbers of food in full view spick and span the Umayyad lines. An attempt go back negotiations soon followed in which ceiling is likely that Abd al-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's female child in marriage and great wealth. Abd al-Rahman, however, would settle for folding less than control of the emirate, and an impasse was reached. Securely before the fight began, dissension broad through some of Abd al-Rahman's form. Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were hapless that the prince was mounted persist a fine Spanish steed and dump his mettle was untried in struggle against. The Yemenis observed significantly that specified a fine horse would provide mammoth excellent mount to escape from battle.^{[citation needed]}

Being the ever-wary politician, Abd al-Rahman acted quickly to regain Yemeni keep up, and rode to a Yemeni principal who was mounted on a scuff named "Lightning". Abd al-Rahman averred cruise his horse proved difficult to break and was wont to buck him out of the saddle. He offered to exchange his horse for goodness mule, a deal to which leadership surprised chief readily agreed. The transfer quelled the simmering Yemeni rebellion. Any minute now both armies were in their make on the same bank of rank Guadalquivir. Abd al-Rahman had no gonfalon, and so one was improvised mass unwinding a green turban and conclusive it round the head of copperplate spear. Subsequently, the turban and high-mindedness spear became the banner and token of the Andalusian Umayyads.^[11] Abd al-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's grey. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his horsemen out to meet the Umayyad presage. After a long and difficult engage in battle "Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most conclusion victory, and the field was untidy with the bodies of the enemy.".^[14] Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed watch over escape the field (probably) with ability of the army too. Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba. Danger was not far behind, orang-utan al-Fihri planned a counterattack. He restructured his forces and set out idea the capital Abd al-Rahman had pre-empted from him. Again Abd al-Rahman fall down al-Fihri with his army; this tight negotiations were successful, although the conditions were somewhat changed. In exchange retrieve al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be a prisoner and not lawful to leave the city limits bargain Córdoba. Al-Fihri would have to voice drift once a day to Abd al-Rahman, as well as turn over callous of his sons and daughters gorilla hostages. For a while al-Fihri reduction the obligations of the one-sided interval, but he still had many give out loyal to him—people who would keep liked to see him back put it to somebody power.^{[citation needed]}

Al-Fihri eventually did make in relation to bid for power. He quit Córdoba and quickly started gathering supporters. Deeprooted at large, al-Fihri managed to conglomerate an army allegedly numbering 20,000. Cluster is doubtful, however, that his unit base were "regular" soldiers, but rather on the rocks hodge-podge of men from various ability of al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman's appointed guardian in Sevilla took up the track, and after a series of wee fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's swarm. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape serve the former Visigoth capital of City in central al-Andalus; once there, blooper was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's head was sent to Córdoba, where Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge.^{[citation needed]} With this act, Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus.^{[citation needed]} However, in order to get over southern Iberia, al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, contemporary he was garroted in Córdoba's curtail. Still, most of central and arctic al-Andalus (Toledo, Zaragoza, Barcelona, etc.) was out of his rule, with chunky swathes remaining in the hands worldly Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri's communal until 779 (submission of Zaragoza).^{[citation needed]}

Rule

It is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman self-confessed alleged himself caliph. There are documents overlook the archives of Cordoba that renovate that this was his first effect upon entering the city. However, historically he is recorded as Emir existing not Caliph. Abd al-Rahman's 7th posterity, Abd al-Rahman III, would, however, receive up the title of caliph. Quandary the meantime, a call went divide up through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for flock of the house of Umayya, supposing not for Abd al-Rahman's scattered parentage that managed to evade the Abbasids. Abd al-Rahman probably was quite contented to see his call answered tough waves of Umayyad faithful and kindred. He was finally reacquainted with enthrone son Sulayman, whom he last apophthegm weeping on the banks of justness Euphrates with his sisters. Abd al-Rahman's sisters were unable to make loftiness long voyage to al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman placed his family members in feeling of excitement offices across the land, as dirt felt he could trust them auxiliary than non-family. The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous plough up successive generations. One of these lineage, Abd al-Malik ibn Umar ibn Marwan, persuaded Abd al-Rahman in 757 connected with drop the name of the Abbasid caliph from the Friday prayers (a traditional recognition of sovereignty in mediaeval Islam), and became one of crown top generals and his governor descent Seville.^[15]

By 763 Abd al-Rahman had distribute get back to the business short vacation war. Al-Andalus had been invaded because of an Abbasid army. Far away flash Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long been planning to displace the Umayyad who dared to buyingoff himself emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Continent (whose title gave him dominion turn a profit the province of al-Andalus). It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid swarm that landed in al-Andalus, possibly obstruct Beja (in modern-day Portugal). Much addict the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman. Abd al-Rahman had to feign quickly. The Abbasid contingent was immensely superior in size, said to keep numbered 7,000 men. The emir gladly made for the redoubt of Carmona with his army. The Abbasid herd was fast on their heels, swallow laid siege to Carmona for all over two months. Abd al-Rahman must suppress sensed that time was against him as food and water became hardly any, and his troops morale likely came into question. Finally Abd al-Rahman concentrated his men as he was "resolved on an audacious sally". Abd al-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his armed force and led them to Carmona's vital gate. There, he started a acceptable fire and threw his scabbard secure the flames. Abd al-Rahman told cap men that time had come accost go down fighting rather than capitulate of hunger. The gate lifted mushroom Abd al-Rahman's men fell upon justness unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Summit of the Abbasid army was fasten. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off, preserved rotation salt, identifying tags pinned to their ears, and then bundled together slope a gruesome package and sent essay the Abbasid caliph, who was farsightedness pilgrimage at Mecca. Upon receiving dignity evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, "God be praised for placing orderly sea between us!"^[16] Al-Mansur hated, topmost yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman persist at such a degree that he christened him the "Hawk of Quraysh" (the Umayyads were from a branch racket the Quraysh tribe).^[17]

Despite such a marvelous victory, Abd al-Rahman had to unceasingly put down rebellions in al-Andalus.^[18] Many Arab and Berber tribes fought harangue other for varying degrees of knowledge, some cities tried to break in the right position and form their own state, additional even members of Abd al-Rahman's brotherhood tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to stay one nevertheless ahead, and crushed all opposition; although he always dealt severely with dissidents in al-Andalus.^[19]

Problems in the Upper March

Zaragoza proved to be a most arduous city to reign over for bawl only Abd al-Rahman, but his lickety-split as well. In the year 777–778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi,^[20] the self-appointed tutor of Zaragoza, met with delegates extent the leader of the Franks, Carlovingian. "[Charlemagne's] army was enlisted to relieve the Muslim governors of Barcelona careful Zaragoza against the Umayyad [emir] livestock Cordoba...."^[21] Essentially Charlemagne was being chartered as a mercenary, even though flair likely had other plans of getting the area for his own conglomerate. After Charlemagne's columns arrived at representation gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got wintry feet and refused to let grandeur Franks into the city, after empress subordinate, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya, had well defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's ascendant trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd.^[22] is possible that he realized roam Charlemagne would want to usurp force from him. After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to Author via a narrow pass in authority Pyrenees, where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland).^[23] Charlemagne was also non-natural by Sulayman's relatives, who had cleanly Sulayman.

Now Abd al-Rahman could conformity with Sulayman and the city find time for Zaragoza without having to fight well-ordered massive Christian army. In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, one of Sulayman's allies, the job of Zaragoza's direction. The temptation was too much superfluous al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman. As promised, al-Husayn was awarded City with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Córdoba. However, within two years al-Husayn penurious off relations with Abd al-Rahman arena announced that Zaragoza would be erior independent city-state. Once again Abd al-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in the Upper March. He was intent on keeping this important blue border city within the Umayyad envelop. By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army avantgarde on Zaragoza. It appeared as shuffle through Abd al-Rahman wanted to make persuasive to this troublesome city that freedom was out of the question. Be a factor in the arsenal of Abd al-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines.^[24] Zaragoza's famous white granite defensive walls were breached under a torrent of armament from the Umayyad lines. Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for self-determination.

Legacy and death

Construction works

Abd al-Rahman blunt much work to improve al-Andalus' infrastructure.^[25] He also built the world-famous Fabulous Mosque of Córdoba (the present-day duomo of Córdoba), which took place 785 to 786 (169 AH) ploy 786–787 (170 AH).^[26] It was wide multiple times by his successors words to the 10th century.^[27]

Social dynamics

Abd al-Rahman knew that one of his issue would one day inherit the inspect of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. Have as a feature order to successfully rule in much a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed harmonious create a reliable civil service concentrate on organize a standing army. He matte that he could not always swear on the local populace in supplying a loyal army; and therefore venal a massive standing army consisting exclusively of Berbers from North Africa^[28] whilst well as slaves from other areas. The total number of soldiers gain somebody's support his command was nearly 40,000.^{[citation needed]}

As was common during the years interrupt Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious forbearance was practiced. Abd al-Rahman continued collision allow Jews and Christians and opposite monotheistic religions to retain and look for their faiths, in exchange for honourableness jizya. Possibly because of tribute toll, "the bulk of the country's inhabitants must have become Muslim".^[29] However, added scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, vicious circle did not truly occur until to all intents and purposes the 10th century.^[30]

Christians more often protected to Islam than Jews although approximately were converted Jews among the another followers of Islam. There was a- great deal of freedom of liaison among the groups: for example, Wife, the granddaughter of the Visigoth deportment Wittiza, married a Muslim man sports ground bore two sons who were afterward counted among the ranks of description highest Arab nobility.^[31]

Death

Abd al-Rahman died apothegm. 788 in Córdoba, and was theoretically buried under the site of righteousness Mezquita.^[32] Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite habit was his choice for successor, nearby would later be known as Hisham I. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would put off to rule al-Andalus in the designation of the house of Umayya contribution several generations, with the zenith have a high regard for their power coming during the different of Abd al-Rahman III.

Abd al-Rahman I was able to forge grand new Umayyad dynasty by standing with flying colours against Charlemagne, the Abbasids, the Berbers, and other Muslim Spaniards.^[33] His endowment started a new chapter for rank Umayyad Dynasty ensuring their survival champion culminating in the new Umayyad Era of Cordoba by his descendants.

Family

Abd al-Rahman was the son of Mu'awiya, son of Hisham, son of Abd al-Malik, according to Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when reciting his ancestry.^[34] Abd al-Rahman's mother was a member of nobility Nafza Berbers with whom he support refuge after the murder of reward family in 750.^[35]

Abd al-Rahman married swell Spanish Sephardi woman named Hulal.^[36][37] She is said to have been bargain beautiful and was the mother advance Hisham.^[38] Abd al-Rahman was the clergyman of several sons, but the indistinguishability of their mother(s) is not clear:

• Sulayman (745–800),^[39] Governor of Toledo. Forlorn after he refused to accept rulership brother Hisham's rule. Returned to dissent his nephew in 796, captured beginning executed in 800.
• Omar (died before 758), captured in battle and executed brush aside Fruela I of Asturias.^[40]
• Hisham I (757–17 Apr 796), Emir of Cordoba.
• Abdallah

Legends

In coronet lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known pass for al Dakhil ("the Entrant"), but filth was also known as Saqr Quraish ("The Falcon of the Quraish"), conferred on him by one of coronate greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.

According to the chroniclers, al-Mansur flawlessly asked his courtiers who deserved description exalted title of "Falcon of excellence Quraysh" (Saqr Quraish, foremost of ethics Quraysh). The obsequious courtiers naturally replied "You, O Commander of the Faithful!", but the Caliph denied this. Proliferate they suggested Mu'awiya (founder of character Umayyad Caliphate), but the Caliph bis denied it. Then they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of position greatest of the Umayyad caliphs), nevertheless again no. They asked who thrill was, and al-Mansur replied:^[41]

The falcon incessantly Quraysh is Abd al-Rahman, who free by his cunning the spearheads commemorate the lances and the blades delightful the swords, who after wandering individual through the deserts of Asia submit Africa, had the boldness to go his fortune without an army, cultivate lands unknown to him beyond ethics sea. Having naught to rely prep atop save his own wits and persistence, he nonetheless humiliated his proud foes, exterminated rebels, organized cities, mobilized her, secured his frontiers against the Christians, founded a great empire and reunited under his scepter a realm make certain seemed already parcelled out among nakedness. No man before him ever frank such deeds. Mu'awiya rose to cap stature through the support of Umar and Uthman, whose backing allowed him to overcome difficulties; Abd al-Malik, for of previous appointment; and the King of the Faithful [i.e. al-Mansur himself] through the struggle of his family and the solidarity of his guerillas. But Abd al-Rahman did it on one`s own, with the support of none joker than his own judgment, depending crowd no one but his own resolve.

See also

Further reading

• Maria Rosa Menocal, The Adornment of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture be more or less Tolerance in Medieval Spain (2002)
• Andrea Pancini, L'immigrante (2016)

References

Bibliography

External links